Social Psychology: Concepts and Research

Social Psychology: Concepts and Research Sophia Ashraf Social Psychology Assignment At times people and groups resort to negative, cruel and even murderous behaviour. Drawing upon contemporary or historical examples analyse whether this behaviour is influenced more by social pressure/structure or by something more personally sinister or selfish. Social psychologists have devoted extensive interest in studying the attitudes, feelings and behaviours of human beings. They have come up with numerous explanations for both helpful and aggressive human behaviours. Philosophers explain these differences in terms of human nature. For instance, Rousseau believes humans are innately peaceful creatures. Therefore, anti-social behaviours are a consequence of wider societal and structural factors. In contrast, Thomas Hobbes believes humans are born evil and are predisposed to criminality. Overall, history is filled with numerous examples of altruistic behaviours. One such example is of Oskar Schindler, who risked his life and saved over 4,000 Jews during the Holocaust. Equally, history has also witnessed inhumane atrocities which include the My Lai Massacre in Vietnam in the 1960’s and the Rwanda and Bosnia genocides of the 1990’s (Hogg Cooper, 2007; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). Social psychologists have offered numerous explanations that influence the behaviours, attitudes and perceptions of people, in performing horrendous crimes against humanity. These include: social pressures like conformity and obedience, and also individual personality traits such as possessing an evil, sadistic and psychopathic character. In this essay, I will use examples of historical and contemporary atrocities, social psychological studies and theoretical concepts to explain the reasons behind why certain individuals and groups commit negative, cruel and murderous behaviours. In doing so, I will analyse whether this behaviour is influenced more by social pressure/structure or by something more personally sinister or selfish (ibid). Social psychologists identify obedience as a major social influence on human behaviour. This is because it involves obeying the orders of other living beings. Psychologists have found obedience to have both a positive and negative impact on human behaviour. For example, it prevents chaos in everyday life as people are socialised to obey laws such as traffic lights, and do so even without the presence of an authority figure. Alternatively, obedience has also proven destructive as many people have blindly obeyed the orders of an authority figure without thinking of the consequences of their actions. Social psychologist Stanley Milgram (1963, 1974) was highly interested in the effects of obedience on human behaviour, and in particular whether an individual would follow the commands of an authority figure if it involved harming another living being (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). In 1963, Milgram carried out a famous ground-breaking experiment on obedience to authority at Yale University. He recruited around forty participants from the community via an advertisement, to participate in a study that tested the effects of punishment on learning. The experiment consisted of three roles which include an experimenter who was a man dressed in a white lab coat, a teacher whose role was always played by the participants, and a learner named Mr Wallace who was actually a confederate of the researcher. All participants were provided with a shock generating machine which had thirty levers in total and ranged from 15 to 450 volts. Participants were also given a sample shock of 45 volts before the experiment commenced. As part of the study, Mr Wallace had to learn a set of pair associates, whereas the teacher was required to administer electric shocks progressively to the learner each time they gave an incorrect answer (ibid). During the experiment, the learner made some correct and incorrect responses. Whenever the learner received a shock for an incorrect response, he would cry and scream in pain and often demanded to be released from the experiment. Consequently, this made participants feel agitated and want to withdraw from the research. In response, the experimenter would reply with a series of direct coercive statements such as ‘the experiment requires that you continue’, and ‘you have no other choice, you must go on’. (Hogg Vaughan, 2014: 242). Milgram’s initial assumption was that his participants would refuse to follow orders that involved harming another individual. However, he was extremely shocked when his results revealed that 65% of his participants continued administering electric shocks till the very end. This study illustrates the devastating impact of obedience, a social pressure which induces ordinary people to perform damaging acts against innocent vict ims (Hogg Vaughan, 2014; Helm Morelli, 1979). Milgram’s experiment has received considerable support from numerous researchers such as Hofling et al, 1966 who found that nurses also obeyed doctor’s orders to administer what they knew were harmfully incorrect doses of drugs to their patients. Milgram’s study has also received substantial criticism for its ethical concerns. Firstly unknown to the participants, the learner was actually a confederate who did not receive any electric shocks throughout the study. Secondly, Milgram’s participants were not provided with a fully informed consent and right to withdraw. This is because the experimenter verbally prodded them to continue during the experiment. His participants were also deceived about the true aims of the study, as Milgram was actually investigating the effects of obedience to authority on human behaviour. Milgram’s findings also lack generalisation to the wider population. This is because the study involved male participants and was conduc ted in a laboratory setting which does not reflect real life situations (ibid). Many historical and contemporary crimes have been committed in the name of obedience to authority. These include historic atrocities witnessed during World War II and the Nazi era, and also contemporary atrocities such as those which have been witnessed in Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria. In all of these horrific events, the perpetrators have claimed to be following orders. For instance, the Nazi official Adolf Eichmann who was held responsible for the death of six million Jews claimed he was following and implementing Hitler’s orders. Eichmann’s trial was covered by the journalist Hannah Arendt (1963) in her book ‘Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the banality of evil’. Like Milgram, Arendt was also interested in what made Eichmann and other war criminals commit such devastating crimes against humanity (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). Within her book, Arendt reveals a shocking finding and asserts that ‘these ‘monsters’ may not have been monsters at all. They were often mild-mannered, softly spoken, courteous people who repeatedly and politely explained that they did what they did not because they hated Jews (or Muslims etc.) but because- they were simply obeying orders’ (Hogg Vaughan, 2014: 240). Here, Arendt illustrates the importance of structural explanations, in particular obedience which a form of social influence that predisposes war time criminals to commit negative, cruel and murderous behaviours. Nevertheless, this structural explanation has been criticised for ignoring the very fact that an individual’s pathological personality and a group’s cultural norms, may also make them more vulnerable to anti-social and murderous behaviours (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Vaughan, 2014). To explain a perpetrators negative human behaviour, Milgram makes reference to the terms the agentic state which denotes absolute obedience. He claims that within the agentic state people see themselves as mere instruments obeying the commands of an authority figure. As a result, individuals experience a diffusion of responsibility for their actions. This is because they transfer personal responsibility onto the authority figure. For this reason, Milgram believes that the agentic state can be used to explain the behaviour of perpetrators, who claim they are not liable for their actions as they were simply following orders. Moreover, even the threat of punishment for disobedience can force many people and groups to perform criminal behaviours against their own wish. However, it must be noted that not everyone obeys the commands of an authority figure, and many people do display resistance to commands that go against their own beliefs (ibid). Social psychologists have also identified conformity as another major social influence on human behaviour. It is defined as a process in which the individual changes their attitudes and behaviours in accordance with the group’s views. Psychologists have identified two types of conformity. These are informational and normative social influence. Firstly, informational influence is a type of conformity where the individual relies on information, knowledge and opinions of others as evidence about reality. Secondly, normative social influence is a type of conformity which is heavily based on others expectations. Here, the individual conforms because they feel a need to gain acceptance and social approval from their group. They also want to avoid feeling socially ostracised. In support of conformity pressures Mark Twain asserts, ‘we are discreet sheep; we wait to see how the drove is going and then go with the drove’ (cited in Kassin et al, 2008: 221). This quote shows how suggestible and compliant people can be as a result of numerous group pressures (Aronson et al, 2013; Kassin et al, 2008). The famous psychologist Philip Zimbardo was highly interested in understanding the downside of conformity, and coined the concept ‘The Lucifer Effect’ to describe how good people turn evil. In 1971, he conducted a famous study named the Stanford Prison Experiment, where paid volunteers were randomly assigned to the role of either a prisoner or a guard. The prisoners were arrested from their house, and were taken to a prison which consisted of bare necessities. Their possessions were removed from them and they were provided with a uniform and a unique ID number. Alternatively, the guards were also given a uniform to wear, along with items such as clubs and whistles which were symbolic of their authority. All prisoners were required to follow a set of fixed rules; otherwise they risked receiving severe punishment (Baron and Branscombe, 2012: Meyers, 2008; Zimbardo, 2007). Within the experiment, Zimbardo played the role of a prison warden who was interested in observing the reactions of his participants. He also wanted to know whether his participants would conform to the norms and requirements of their roles and whether they would behave like genuine prisoners and guards. Zimbardo found that the prisoners were rebellious at first but, then later became passive whereas, the guards grew more and more brutal and sadistic in their character. This was seen in the manner in which they harassed and dehumanised prisoners. Zimbardo found that these changes in behaviour were so disturbing that it became necessary to end the study after six days, when initial plans called for it to last two weeks. According to the individualistic explanation of crime and deviance, such inhumane behaviours may be attributed to individual factors such as a genetic predisposition to criminality (ibid). In opposition to the individualistic explanation, Zimbardo (2007) adopts a structural perspective to explain his findings. He argues that a person inclination to conform to the norms of their social roles such as that of a soldier or prison guard can have harmful consequences, as they may make decent people perform indecent behaviours against members of their own species. A real life parallel to the Stanford Prison experiment is the disturbing events of the Abu Ghraib prison which started in Iraq in 2003. In this horrific event, American soldiers physically abused Iraqi prisoners as they perceived them to be less than human. According to the individualistic explanation, these horrific atrocities are attributed to individual deficiencies and limitations. For instance, people who are labelled psychopaths, sadists, and evil creatures are more vulnerable to behave inhumanely with innocent people than psychologically normal people (Aronson et al, 2013: Baron and Branscombe, 2012; Keller, 2006). In relation to the Nazi Holocaust, the historian Daniel Goldhagen argues that ‘many German citizens were willing anti-Semitic participants in the Holocaust, not mere ordinary people forced to follow orders’ (Kassin et al, 2008: 243). Therefore, it may well be argued that the Germans had a character defect and were prejudiced and pathologically frustrated individuals. These factors influenced them to behave with cruelty towards others. On the other hand, developmental psychologists argue that anti-social and aggressive personality disorders can also predispose individuals to resort to criminal behaviours. For example, Adorno et al, 1950 adopts a psychodynamic framework and argues that early childhood rearing practices that are harsh and authoritarian produce individuals who are obsessed by authority and are more likely to be hostile and aggressive towards other people. This provides support for the claim that personality factors cause individuals to behave in a negative and cruel manner towards others (Aronson et al, 2013; Hogg Cooper, 2007; Kassin et al, 2008). In conclusion, social influence has proved to be a fundamental area of inquiry for social psychologists who attempt to explain the numerous influences on human behaviour. Psychologists argue that people and groups are subject to powerful and complex social pressures. These may originate from people, groups and institutions. Social psychologists explain violent and anti-social human behaviours as being either attributed to the individual, situation or system. Social psychologists have identified conformity and obedience to play an important role in influencing human behaviour. They have also identified individual factors such as a genetic predisposition to crime and also personality attributes such as a possessing a selfish, sinister and authoritarian personality to predispose people to behave criminally. There are also other factors that may shape. These include prejudice, discrimination and a radical ideology which may predispose people and groups to behave inhumanely with others. O verall, research on crime and deviance have revealed that it is highly complex to determine whether negative, cruel and murderous human behaviours are due to social/structural pressures or individual factors or a combination of both. Sexual Offences Act 2003: An Analysis Sexual Offences Act 2003: An Analysis The questions as posed raises a number of issues concerning the interplay between child and youth sexuality and the criminal law that is not readily resolved. The question shall be addressed using the following analytical approach that is intended to be considered progressively, commencing with the identification of the specific provisions of the Sexual Offences Act that demand the greatest scrutiny in when considering the interests of children. The analysis then explores the implications of the key terms employed in the question and how each may be interpreted in light of the Sexual Offences Act provisions; ‘children, ‘protection, ‘sexual abuse, ‘legitimate sexual behaviour, and ‘mistake are highlighted. The expression ‘over-criminalise is afforded a distinct consideration in view of the breadth of the potential sexual acts that might be prosecuted pursuant to the Act, coupled with the potential reach of both police and prosecutorial discretion in these proceedings. The analysis includes the review and inclusion of relevant academic commentaries that consider the issues noted above; the paper concludes with the assertion that while the Sexual Offences Act is an imperfect mechanism upon which to construct a protective scheme for children who are exploited or otherwise the victim of nonconsensual sexual activity, the current statute represents a legislative scheme that is clearly rooted in the public interest and one that addresses a number of important societal issues. The Sexual Offences Act, 2003 The Act provides for the regulation of a broad range of defined types of sexual misconduct. Commencing with s. 5 (Rape of a child), the enumerated Child Sex Offences provisions that are set out at sections 9 through 19 define the age limits applicable to establishing proof of the various enumerated offences. Section 10 (Inciting a child to sexual activity) is an example of the age definition employed in all of the Child Sex Offences: A person aged 18 or over (A) commits an offence if he intentionally causes or incites another person (B) to engage in an activity the activity is sexual, and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Either: (i) B is under 16 and A does not reasonably believe that B is 16   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  or over, or (ii) B is under 13 Various acts of sexual touching are criminalised: the offence of ‘Grooming (s.15) is noteworthy in that the proof of the offence does not require proof of any physical contact directed by the perpetrator to the child victim to establish criminal liability for a sexual offence. The ‘grooming provisions are primarily directed to Internet based contacts (such as by way of Internet chat rooms) or mobile telephone media, such as text messaging between adults and children as defined. Commentators have suggested ‘à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that applying the ‘grooming clause in practice is highly problematic given the difficulty of demonstrating ‘sexual intent towards a childà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(previous case law) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦illustrates the extent to which some sex offenders are prepared to go to secure a child for sexual activity and the overt manner in which ‘grooming occurred. The penalty provisions of the Act generally invite one of two types of dispositions. For the more serious offences such as rape, the maximum penalty is 14 years in prison; for the lesser offences the maximum penalty is a 5 year term. Subject to the definitions contained in each section, most offences are also capable of prosecution by summary means and a corresponding maximum penalty of 6 months in prison, or fine in the alternative. These provisions are considered in the context of the suggested ‘over-criminalisation, below. Key words As noted in the introduction, five words and phrases extracted from the question are employed to advance the present analysis. ‘Children It is submitted that while the definition of ‘child may be variable and highly dependent upon the context of any particular sexual circumstance, the age parameters set out in the Act are generally appropriate for the following reasons. While a child aged 13 or under may have the physical maturity and the emotional desire to engage in sexual activity (this varies significantly from person to person), there is strong academic support for the proposition that a young person of this age will generally lack the appreciation of the consequences of sexual activity, coupled with a lack of emotional maturity to necessarily deal with the activity in a safe and socially acceptable manner. Further when children are provided with the opportunity to use the Internet to make contact with virtual strangers, one comprehensive study revealed that over 60 percent of a sampling of London children aged 10 to 13 had limited understanding of the extent to which others could potentially harm them if they were not discreet concerning their personal identifiers or if they agreed to meet someone they did not personally know. In many respects the statutory definition may be regarded as a societal approximation. For any critic of the Act who believes that the age bar is set to high, particularly with regard to the 13 to 16 year old age range that involves the additional consideration of the concept of honest and reasonable mistake as to age, there are significant segments of modern UK society that define a child not simply by their biological age but in terms of their status as members of the family household, or as unmarried persons. Without stereotyping a particular group, the conservative elements of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish faiths all hold strong cultural / religious views that would place the definition of a child above age 13, or above age 16 where the mistake defences are invoked. An anomaly in the legislation is the disparity between the general age of majority laws in the UK and the sexual offence age provisions in some circumstances, a person can have consensual sexual intercourse at age 16 but be prohibited from voting, consuming alcohol, or entering into most kinds of contracts. The justification for this anomaly is beyond the scope of this paper; it is acknowledged that a greater measure of uniformity of age limits promotes consistency and social utility. However, it is also to be noted that the provisions are in general accord with the corresponding European Union conventions. ‘Protection It is submitted that one may properly be uneasy when significant consideration is given to concepts of protection when the conduct, such as sexual activity, is generally discovered after the fact. The protection afforded the public is that of the combined effects of publicity concerning the provisions and deterrence associated with the criminal process. ‘Sexual abuse The Act has properly defined a broad range of sexual touching and physical contact as potentially constituting sexual abuse. The definition must be broad to encompass the psychological and emotional harm that can (but not always does) stem from any kind of assaultive behaviour, no matter how seemingly minor. Further, the risk of long term damage in such occurrences is well documented; ‘à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦More convincing evidence of the dangers of adult-child sexual activity comes from studies of cycles of sexual abuse The evidence is much stronger here-penetrative sexual acts by certain sorts of adults are virtually universal in paedophiles‘ childhood. Cramer reviewed numerous academic studies in this respect and concluded that ‘à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is not surprising that no measurable harm comes to some teenagers who knowingly consent to an involvement with adults just a few years older than themselves. In some communities with different laws, they might be old enough to be free to engage in sexual relations. ..However, this does not mean that all adult-young person sexual relations are invariably non-damaging-or that it is possible to predict ‘harmless‘ ones with any confidence. The question as posed carries the implicit suggestion that sexual activity involving a ‘consenting child (consent as defined in the Act) is not a risk to the child. Cramer properly identifies the fact that harm is a considerable variable for the reasons noted above. Further, all considerations of what is abusive behaviour deserving of societal sanction and what is acceptable will engage a number of different perspectives. As mentioned with respect to the definition of a child, the cultural and moral position of the child and their family may be a significant factor in how the activity is characterised. Biological, emotional and psychological considerations are also at stake. Given the passage of the Act by the UK Parliament, there must be some measure of societal acceptance of the statutory regime as one that properly reflects UK societal concerns regarding this activity. ‘Over-criminalise This term must be approached from two perspectives. The first is the effect of the statutory penalty sections. These provisions on their face provide significant latitude for a sentencing judge to fashion a disposition that meets the demands of each case. One would expect the cardinal sentencing rule of ‘worst offence, worst offender to draw the sentences approaching what is unquestionably a significant penalty of 14 years for rape; rape is equally a horrible offence. It is also clear that the mitigating factors of a positive relationship between the offender and child, relative age disparity, and similar issues must mitigate in the favour of the offender. The concern expressed for over-criminalisation is addressed at least in part through the power to deal with the extremely minor transgressions of this nature by way of the conditional caution provisions, or by virtue of the general powers of discretion vested in the Crown Prosecution Service. There are elements of UK society who may legitimately feel that public legislation that mandates certain proceedings or dispositions is far preferable a public interest safety mechanism than a discretion vested in the prosecution that is essentially unreviewable. Conditional cautions have attracted a mixed review in the UK press and legal commentaries; they are perceived in some quarters as a system soft on crime. However, the conditional caution mechanisms address precisely the issue posited in the present question while the Act may provide significant sentences in the proper case, like all other UK statutes, its effect is ameliorated by the discretionary caution. The distinctiveness of the administrative structure of the conditional caution has been furthered through the development of the Gravity Factor Matrix, an assessment tool developed by the Home Office to assist police services and prosecutors in the determination of which types of occurrences should be subject to a conditional caution. Police forces throughout the UK have now incorporated the matrix into their internal policy and procedures. The general considerations of both aggravating and mitigating circumstances are set out in detail; the Home Office issued a similarly comprehensive guideline concerning warnings for young offenders in May 2006. The use of the caution process enjoys a widespread acceptance with prosecutors, with 24 per cent of all UK criminal offences charged resulting in this disposition; 17per cent more conditional cautions were issued in 2005 over the previous year. Given this trend, concerns regarding the risk of over-criminalised youth sex activity are misplaced, provided the prosecutorial discretion remains active in the consideration of sexual offences. ‘Legitimate sexual behaviour The question is one that is loaded with the assumption that ‘children (depending upon the age definition) will innocently engage or perhaps experiment with sexual activity. In a hypothetical occurrence between a 14 year old boy and a 13 year old girl, where consent in the practical sense is alleged, it is difficult to imagine a reasonable person characterising the interaction as ‘sexual abuse† (subject to the cultural and religious observations noted above). The Act is clearly aimed at circumstances of the prescribed age difference creating a practical presumption of inequality, or the obvious circumstances of harm that are consistent with abuse. ‘Mistake It is contended that there is nothing within the framework of the Sexual Offences Act, 2003 that creates a potential deviation form the now well developed legal principles in support of the defence of mistake. Due statutory deference is paid to the fact that sexual offence circumstances are often emotionally charged, carrying the potential to affect recollection and perception,. For these reasons reasonable mistake of fact as to age must remain an available defence; wilful blindness and recklessness are relegated (as they should be) to the category of mitigation, if any. It seems doubtful given all of the factors noted above that the UK courts would embrace the de facto reverse onus now imposed upon an accused in these circumstances by the Supreme Court of Canada. The availability of mistake in the statutory regime is consistent with the European Convention provisions regarding the assurance of a fair trial. Conclusion The present question does not recognise the strengths of the Sexual Offences Act as they pertain to children who are victims of sexual assault. The act strikes an appropriate balance between individual rights and societal protection.

Globalisation of Higher Education Essay

The term ‘globalization’ means integration of economies and societies through cross country flow of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Globalization is a process, which has affected many areas of human life, one of those being education. The effect of globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within learning system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards an nformation- based society. Globalization has a multi- dimensional impact on the system of education. It promotes new tools and techniques in this area like E- Learning, flexible learning, distance education programs and overseas training. The globalization of education is shaping young children of a country into ‘global citizens with a broad range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive information based society. Globalization also facilitates international collaboration and cross- cultural exchange. Globalization of higher education is a major concern for all societies. As the essential driving force of economic, social and human development, education is at the heart of the change that is dramatically affecting our world in the areas of science, technology, economic and culture. This paper will analyze the positive and negative impact of globalization on Higher education for developing countries. Effective education system is the foundation of opportunities to lead a decent life. One should ensure that all Children should have adequate access to education at all income level. The paper argues that education is a core element of society. The basic cause of global inequality is due to the difference in opportunities in education between different countries. People can only contribute and benefit from globalization if they are endowed with knowledge, skills, and values and with the capabilities and rights needed to pursue their basic likelihoods. The accuracy of the analysis is dependent upon the accuracy of the data reported by various people of the country. The result of this study will help all the sectors of the society to understand better, the culture, values and education system of other countries and facilitates its adoption. Educators can also use this result to bring the changes in their areas if necessary. Introduction The term â€Å"Globalization† represents the international system that is shaping most societies today. Globalization is a process by which many areas of human life such as economies, societies, politics, business and cultures have been affected around the world. One of these areas being education. The term ‘globalization’ means integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. It s characterized by an accelerated flow of trade, capital and information as well as mobility of individuals, across geographical borders. It reflect comprehensive level of interaction than that has occurred in the past, suggesting something beyond the work â€Å"international†. Globalization means more competition, not just with other companies or institutions in the same city or the same region. Globalization also means that national borders do not limit a nation’s investment, production, innovation and education. Therefore, the term â€Å"globalization† has acquired many emotive commutations. At one extreme, globalization is seen as an irresistible and benign force for delivering economic prosperity to people throughout the world. At the other, it is blamed as a source of all contemporary ills. However, while the theory of globalization is relatively new, the process is not. Roberson (1992) further states that globalization was initially discussed from economic perspectives, but soon after it became a topic for discussions among intellectuals from cultural perspectives as well. According to Giddens â€Å"Globalization the dialectic of homogenization and heterogenization† (1991. p22). In other words, globalization, by intensifying the interconnectedness among different people, things and ideas, homogenizes the world and yet at the same time, the world becomes heterogenized as people are more aware of differences due to the increasing proximity with differences under a globalize world (Giddens, 1991 ). The notion of the world community being transformed into a global village, as introduced in 1960 by Marshall Mc Luhan in an influential book about her newly shared experience of mass media, was likely to be the first expression of the contemporary concept of globalization. Cited in Epstein, 2002). After 1980, accounts of globalization focused on a professed tendency of societies to converge in becoming modern, described initially by Clark Kerr and colleagues as the emergence of industrial man (cited in Robertson, 1992). One critical issue that emerges from all of these restructuring processes is the central role of Knowledge, education and learning for the success of the Global Information Society (GIS) and global information economy. Globalization impacts all aspects of society. Higher education may and business contents seem particularly influenced by them. In the twentieth century, may developing countries have xperienced growth in the educational facilities available to them due to the entry of institution from the west. Some believe that this process is an invaluable opportunity for the people of the developing counties to increase their skills and standard of education. Other fear that it is merely a modern version of cultural imperialism that will lead to the creation of a universal, ultimately western society. People can only contribute and benefit from globalization if they endowed with knowledge, skills and with capabilities and rights needed to pursue their basic livelihoods. They need employment and incomes, and a healthy environment. These are the essential conditions with empower them to participate fully as citizens in their local, national and global communities. Education is a major concern for all societies. As the foundation and essential driving force of economic, social and human development, education is at the heart of the change that is dramatically affecting our world in the areas of science, technology, economics and culture. Steven Schwartz (http:// www. Ssn.. flinders. edu. u) believed that â€Å"Education, where possible, hould be integrated into the private sector because ‘higher education is increasingly and international enterprise’ and thus will increasingly be pressured and drawn into deregulation and privatization. † This paper analyses the effect of globalization on higher education and also discusses about the impact of globalization on higher education, various opportunities and challenges on the society. Imp act of Globalization of Higher Education. Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalization. The effects of Globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are oreseeing changes with in school system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge, changing the role of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialization towards and information- based society. It reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new form of cultural imperialism. It brings rapid development in technology and communications are foreseeing changes within school system across the world as ideas, values and knowledge. The rise of a global society, driven by technology and communication development are shaping hildren, the future citizens of the world into ‘ global citizens’, intelligent people with a broad range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive. , information based society. The future of countries often lies with in their ability to compete in a global market where industrial based economies are giving way to knowledge based industries, realizing the importance of â€Å"knowledge skills and the intellectual capacity to meet the challenges of accelerated change and uncertainty†. Education is becoming a lifelong learning and training process, developing ransferable skills and knowledge that can be applied to competitive markets where knowledge and information is being trades as a commodity. Although globalization seems to be unavoidable to many counties and numerous initiative and efforts have been made to adapt to it with aims at taking the opportunities created from it to develop their societies and people, in recent years there are also increasing international concerns with the dangerous impacts of globalization on digenous and national developments. Various social movements have been initiated against the threats of globalization particularly in eveloping countries. The negative impacts of globalization include various types of economic, political, and cultural colonization by advanced countries on those developing and under- developed countries. In evitable, how to maximize the opportunities and benefits from globalization to support local developments and reduce the threats and negative impacts of globalization will be the major concerns of developing countries. Opportunities of globalization of higher education Knowledge is the driving forces in the rapidly changing globalize economy and society. Quantity nd quality of specialized human resources determine their competence in the global market. Emergence of knowledge results in both challenges and opportunities. It is well known that the growth of the global economy has increased opportunities for those countries with good levels of education. Globalization has a multi-dimensional impact on the system of education. It promotes new tools and techniques in these areas like- E- learning, flexible learning, distance educational programme and overseas training. The introduction of technology into the classroom is changing the nature f delivering education to the students is gradually giving way to a new form of electronic literacy , more programs and education materials are made available in electronic form. Teachers are preparing lectures in the electronic form and even students are presenting assignments and giving papers in the electronic form. The blackboards have been replaced by the LCD’s. The chalk has been replaced by the pointers and the power point presentations. Books have been replaced by compact discs. Even grades and the exams are gradually becoming available through electronic means and notebooks are replaced by laptops. Now the students do not have to carry heavy bags to the classrooms. Even the students can be examined through computer managed learning system and do tutorials exercises on a computer rather than in the classroom. Even, the technology has given the opportunity to deliver the material through electronic source i. e. via power point presentation and even the notes can be distributed to the students via electronic mail. With such changes and the emergence of video conferencing and the internet, the barriers of distance are being broken down at a rapid rate, due to the key aspect of globalization. Students and adults or in other works each and every person can now learn in variety of ways and there is no longer any need to be physically present in the education institutions in order to learn. The material is becoming readily available over internet, through video conferencing and tape recordings. Teacher can deliver the lecture to the whole class with the help of video conferencing without being physically present in the class. Now, the student of can get the education from any part of the world without traveling over there. The person can stay in his /her own country and et the education of which country he/ she wishes without going over there. Students can learn any time and at any place. Anyone can maintain libraries of texts, images computer software and other forms of data, anywhere at any time. The rapid growth of television services, with their immense influence as media of mass communication, has been very relevant in the technological shift. Other larger contribution to this shift includes the transistor and space satellites. Communication and information based technology over the years is the internet. This is a massive network of computers located hroughout the world. Developments in the delivery of education is allowing for individuals to explore new areas of learning and thinking that could not be done with pen and paper. They are discovering knowledge through inquiry and experimentation rather than memorizing facts in a teacher dominated classroom setting. Another opportunity of international trade leads to allocation of resources that is consistent with comparative advantage. Globalization results in specialization which enhances productivity. Thus, the international trade, in general, is beneficial and that restrictive trade practices impede rowth. That’s why many off the emerging economies, which originally depended on a growth model of import substitution, have moved over to a policy of outward orientation. Globalization of higher eduction also gives the opportunity in movement of capital. Capital is a key factor of production. Capital flows across countries have played an important role in enhancing the production base. Without capital any type of economic activity is not possible. Capital mobility enables the total saving of the world to be distributed among countries which have the highest investment potential. Emergence of strong capital market has been one of the important features of the current process of globalization while the growth in capital and foreign exchange markets have facilitated the transfer of resources across borders, the gross turnover in foreign exchange markets has been extremely large. The internationalization of higher education can be linked to various internal and external changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labor market, which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers and workers with deeper nderstandings of languages, cultures and business methods from all over the world. â€Å"Modern education is almost exclusively focused on preparing children for an urban future. † Challenges of globalization of higher education No doubts, higher education has attained a key position in the knowledge society under globalize economy. However, the challenges faced are immense and far- reaching. Its impact on the clientele via, individuals, institutions, systems and societies are not only not clear but also not comprprehentible at this moment unless it is viewed in the context of various other factors that re simultaneously operating on the higher education system. Some agrees that the rapid cross national flows of people, goods , capital and information may dissolve the nation states, push institutions( university is the one) into a common mould where as others disagree. It is assumed that globalization promises dramatic and rewarding change to the higher education system, of societies, which are relatively stable in their political, social and institutional make up, while for the will performing higher education system. It is also true that globalization has given the dvanced economies a huge advantage as they had made enough preparation prior to its launching while others are caught in the trap without any preparation. Integration into world economy today’s implies not only mastery of traditional knowledge but also the capacity to acquire the new skills required by a knowledge society. It is therefore evident that an unequal sharing of the new communication and information technologies only serves to reinforce existing inequalities. While education deficits are obviously greater in developing countries, this is a major issue in developed countries as well. In many industrialized countries there is a persistent problem of illiteracy and low skills, which is and important source of social exclusion. Unequal access to education also fuels growing wage inequality and worsen the income distribution. The uneducated and unskilled in industrialized counties face sever disadvantage in an increasingly competitive global market. However, the provision of both primary and secondary schooling increased during the 90’s across the globe, but progress is inadequate and hides the differences between counties and regions. There are many evidences that the more rapid progress is possible if the political will nd the resources exists, in high and low income countries alike. The increase in poverty in the world is the most tragic phenomenon in this era of abundance. It is the cause of marginal and the exclusion of increasingly bigger groups of the world population and in particular, affects children, the young and women. As a consequence, we see the development of cultures of poverty and marginalization that lock the same people into the cycle of poverty and reinforce their exclusion. But it is still the inequality with regards to knowledge that constitutes one of the biggest challenges of our societies. The traditional raw materials and non renewable natural resources under threat of extinction no longer occupy the most important place in the process of production and development . It is knowledge in itself that has become one of the key resources of economic growth. The introduction of technology is also becoming a challenge to the society. As the implementation of technology and communication to be successful and to educate a society, both the students and teachers need to be technologically literate. Communication technology is offering new challenges for students of all abilities as they can discuss issues of concern with heir fellow students from around the world. A shift in education is becoming evident where more responsibility is being placed on the individual for his or her learning, instead of solely on the teacher. Subsequently, the teachers themselves also need to be highly technologically literate, needing the competence and confidence to prepare students for a global information society. Just because of technology and communication seems to be creating in human life between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’ resulting in a bifurcated society of those who can afford such information technology and those who can’t. so too does globalization. While education institutions in western societies are embracing technology, developing countries are once again left behind, too weak and fragile to implement development programs for education, let alone introduce technology as well. There are severe limitations in delivering basic services. A lack of infrastructure and funding makes it difficult to implement any technological and communication advancements. However, despite differences in economy, political, cultures and society, second and third worlds have adopted educational ideals from western thought and are anxious to appear odern and therefore promote education as a symbol of modernity and development to their own population and the foreign countries. The spread of education internationally, as a result of globalization, has clearly had effects on Cultures worldwide. Now the sources of wealth come from knowledge and communication instead of natural resources and physical labour, which once characterized the United States as a n industrial society. This is a global rather than a national economy. The new economy puts a premium on intellectual capital and the people who produce it. This means that the demand for igher education is expanding dramatically. Education is needed throughout a lifetime, and the marketplace for that education is international. This growth makes education appealing to the private sector. Educational institutions have reacted by becoming more market oriented. Due to this increasing free trade around the globe- to end protection in many sectors so that there is more competition and privatization, education is increasingly being drawn into this global capitalist competition. The internationalization of education has become one of the key themes of ducational policy and planning in the 1990’s and the integration of worldwide capital and labour markets; educators are being forced to respond to a new set of challenges. The demographics of higher education have changed substantially. Less than one fifth of today’s college students meet the traditional stereotype of attending school full time. For the new majority of students, higher education is not as central to their lives as it was for previous generations of students. Research shows they want a very different relationship with their college than students have historically had. They are unwilling to pay for activities and services they do not use. Higher education is being subjected to greater criticism than in the past on issues varying from low productivity and higher cost to the quality of leadership and the inadequacy of technology use. This is an invitation to a private sector that rightly or wrongly sees higher education as the next health care industry. Another challenge is of currency trade. Currency trade has become an end in itself. However, the volatility in the foreign exchange has created often times panic situations. The most recent xample of this was the East Asian crisis. Contagion of financial crises is a worrying phenomenon. When one country faces a crisis, it affects others. It is not as if financial crises are solely caused by foreign exchange traders. Another, major concern is to deliver world class education with updated curriculum and practical exposure. This is possible only by attracting talented and experienced persons in to academics. At present it is difficult to assess not only the nature and dimensions of globalization, but also what it means to the field of education. A few educational researchers have attempted to made onnections between the several dimensions of globalization and the policies of education. Globalization of Higher Education in India India is also following the global phenomenon. As part of globalization, the economic reform packages were introduced in India in the beginning of 1991. These reform packages imposed a heavy compression on the public budgets on education sector, more specifically so on higher education. This has trickled down to public expenditure on education in general, and higher education in particular. Indian government and Indian corporate sector has recognized the importance of management ducation in the ganging global scenario. Today under the reforming economic conditions, integration of the Indian economy with world economy presupposes efficiency and competitiveness in the domestic front as well as in the international arena. As the process of globalization is technology-driven, and knowledge driven, the very success of economic reform policies critically depends upon the competence of human capital. But, what is observed is the reverse. Even within the education sector, relative priority assigned to higher education has been on the decline. It is to be realized that higher education institutions lay an important role insetting the academic standard for primary and secondary education. They are also responsible for not only providing the specialized human capital in order to corner the gains from globalization, but also for training inside the country, provide policy advice, etc. Globalization is expected to have a positive influence on the volume, quality an spread of knowledge through increased interaction among the various states. Today our education system is strong enough but central and state governments should change their roles with in the education system, re- inventing them as facilitating supervisory rganizations. Teacher training, infrastructure and syllabuses need to be urgently upgraded. Industry should come forward to share experience with students and to offer more opportunities for live projects. Commercial institutions offering specialized education have come up everywhere. In view of globalization many corporate universities, both foreign and Indian, are encroaching upon our government institutions. Our Institutes like IIM’S and IIT’S have produced world class professionals. These institutes imparts quality education as per industry expectations and give due importance to institute Industry interface. Under the new scenario, Government – Private partnership is becoming important in Management Education. Now India is a transforming country. We are near to achieve status of developed nation. The demand for higher education has been growing rapidly with comparatively faster growth in enrolment in higher educational institutions than the growth in number of higher educational institutions. The growth rates are doubled among the students enrolled in post- graduate and research, while the number of institutions for post –graduate and research studies has grown at a slower rate in 1990’s than in 1980’s. India is witnessing new era in the field of Management Education. Many Corporate groups like Reliance, Nirma, Tata, Sterlite etc have promoted Management Institutes. Some reputed foreign universities are also coming to India. But government should issue some guidelines so that fees structure remains with in certain limit and those who are from economically poor background have same opportunity. Conclusion Globalization has had many obvious effects on educational technology and communication systems change the way education is delivered as well as roles played by both teachers and tudents. The development of this technology is facilitating the transition from an industrial based society to an information-based one. At the same time, there is a dark side to globalization and to the very openness of the new information systems. While the richest countries grow richer, the poor are becoming poorer. Income, information and education gaps between the rich and the poor are widening not narrowing: economic crises, trade imbalances and structural adjustments have precipitated a moral crisis in many countries, tearing the basic social and ultural fabric of many families and communities apart, resulting in increasing youth unemployment , suicide, violence, racism and drug abuse and anti social behavior form schools. In the 21st century, education systems face the dual challenge of equipping students with the new knowledge, skills and values needed to be competitive in a global market while at the same time producing graduates who are responsible adults, good citizens both of their country and of the world. Thus, globalization challenges us to rethink not only how much education is needed but also its ultimate purposes.

Universities: Breaking Down Walls

Do colleges and universities need to change to accommodate students once excluded from the university? This is a powerful question that society needs to know the answer to and the universities need to address. This is also a complicated question that has many facets that need to be addressed. Universities need to accommodate people with the willingness to learn and become educated. The university can†t think that the privileged are the only people that deserve the education they offer; the university has to think on a broader scale and include the once excluded. If this problem were looked at from a financial standpoint, it would hurt the universities, but if this problem were looked at from a social standpoint, it would benefit society as a whole. Mike Rose is a great example of what can happen if the university put some faith in the under-privileged student. The son of an Italian immigrant family, he was placed within the vocational school system. Though placing him within the vocational school system was a mistake due to a clerical error, he played down to expectations beautifully. From those days within the vocational school system to the University of California, Los Angeles were he is now the Professor of Education is a huge testament to the power of education and where it can take someone in life. Education surpasses all boundaries, and education takes someone as far or as high as they want to go, Mike Rose is a shining example of this. Mike Rose also mentions a key aspect of education, which is the support his professors throughout his college and/or entire educational experience. Without help, guidance, and support from your professors, the student, will at times more often than not will feel that education doesn†t want to embrace your efforts, and that is why the support offered from your professors is such a vital part of the education process. Rose also uses great vivid examples in his passage that pertain to the importance of education and shows why it shouldn†t be excluded from anyone willing to accept the challenge of receiving it. The idea of getting an education is the driving force behind anyone and everyone that gets an education. Take for example, Mike Rose†s uncle who came to America from Italy. He came here with nothing, not even an education, and he had to figh(literally) for everything he got, even his education. He was embarrassed in school for not understanding anything that was taught and not being able to read or write, but he overcame these adversities and eventually taught his mother how to sign her name and helped her with everything that she needed from reading flyers to announcements of sales to legal documents. Finally, he took care of all the writing she needed done. This is just one of the many stories Rose used and I use it to show that if education and/or the university embraced Rose†s uncle in his endeavors instead of shunning him, then it would†ve been a much easier transition for him and a richer experience for him and the many others like him. This is an all to familiar place for the underprivileged, but there is a heartfelt story from a brilliant scholar and that person would be Bell Hooks, who came from a poor family that was high on values and family. Hooks decided early on that she wanted more for herself in the was of education, but knew it would be a difficult task to accomplish. When she left her home in the South to pursue her education at Stanford, her parents warned her of the traps and pressures out in the world, but she stood firm with her decision to go to California for schooling. When Hooks arrived at Stanford, she realized that there was a whole other world out there, away from her home in the South. Hooks was tested many times throughout her college experience to change her values to that of the aristocratic values that the university was pushing onto the student body. But Hooks maintained her values that her parents, family, and surroundings had instilled in her, and she moved on to be an educator, not just an educator but also someone that cared about the student†s education. Hooks moved on from Stanford to Harvard and eventually started to lecture all over the country; she even wrote books in a non-academic format so that people of all educational levels could read and understand her message. To look through her eyes the university appears to be a dismal, wrenched place that caters to an affluent, upper class, and white society. Also would you take notice that the university frowned upon black on black relationships and supported a powerful white-supremacist structure. The reason for this outlook is that through her experiences the universities pampered the privileged and didn†t pay attention to the underprivileged. And when the university did let an a underprivileged person walk among them, the university would try to corrupt that individual and have tem change their values to values that were more suited for the university. The aristocratic faculty of the universities would urge people to cut ties to your past and change your values, but all in all, that†s not the way to accommodate the once excluded students; that†s a way to include them but reform them to the university†s way of thinking and to the values the university wants instilled in those individuals. To truly include the underprivileged the universities would have to let them be free: free to think, free to criticize, and free to be themselves. The universities aren†t willing to do that foe the mere fact that they lose their control over the student body. For the university to truly accommodate the once excluded the university would have to change not only its curriculum but also its view on people. It would have to look at a person as just that a person, not as this one†s privileged and this one†s not. Universities have to understand that a person willing to learn is a person worth educating. So in the end the answer to the question do colleges and universities need to accommodate the once excluded students the answer would have to be yes, if the once excluded student is willing to learn.

Sarbanes Oxley Corporate Responsibility For Financial...

Few pieces of legislation have had an impact on corporations, accounting firms, and investors like Sarbanes-Oxley. Sarbanes-Oxley was passed by Congress in 2002 as direct result of the accounting scandals that plagued the public equity markets during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Sarbanes-Oxley was developed to be a series of measures, safeguards, guidelines, and criminal punishments in order to prevent future accounting scandals on the scale of Enron and Worldcom. Sarbanes-Oxley has profoundly impacted both management and accountants albeit in mostly similar ways. The following exploration will compare and contrast these views held by management and accountants regarding Sarbanes-Oxley. According to Green (2004) Sarbanes-Oxley†¦show more content†¦Management views these changes as an additional risk that they were not previously subject to. Section 302 was intentionally designed to prevent management teams from stating that they did not fully approve of the information in their company’s financial statements and annual reports. Section 302 requires management to become more aware of the internal control environment of their company. Prior to Sarbanes-Oxley, internal controls were not a significant corporate edict and were left to the charge of internal accountants, not high level executives. Accountants are not significantly impacted by Section 302. Accounting firms were able to generate significant internal control design consulting fees during the first few years after the enactment of Section 302. Section 401 covers additional Disclosures in Periodic Reports. These additional disclosures include all material off-balance sheet liabilities, obligations, or transactions. Management views Section 401 as a significant hindrance to what used to be a rather common management technique: absorb the benefits of a business transaction onto the issuing company’s financial statements but leaving the liabilities or obligations on the non-issuing and non-consolidated entity. Accountants view Section 401 as a significant contributing factor to the increased liability exposure of poor audits. Accounting firms revised their audit Sarbanes Oxley Corporate Responsibility For Financial... Different portions of legislation have had an impact on corporations, accounting firms, and investors like Sarbanes-Oxley. Sarbanes-Oxley was passed by Congress in 2002 as a direct result of the accounting scandals that plagued the public equity markets during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Sarbanes-Oxley was developed to be a series of measures, safeguards, guidelines, and criminal punishments in order to prevent future accounting scandals on the scale of Enron and Worldcom. Sarbanes-Oxley has profoundly impacted both management and accountants although in mostly similar ways. The following exploration will compare and contrast these views held by management and accountants regarding Sarbanes-Oxley. According to Green (2004) Sarbanes-Oxley legislation is comprised of various sections, of which five are the most significant. These sections are Section 302, Section 401, Section 404, Section 409, and Section 802. Section 302 pertains to Corporate Responsibility for Financial Reports. This section requires the management of the issuing company to certify that the officers have reviewed the report, financial statements and accompanying notes and supplementary information are free from material misstatement. The financial statements and accompanying notes and supplementary information are free from material omissions, that management has evaluated internal controls within the previous 90 days and reported on their internal control findings. 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